De koopmannen aan de keizer

Europese rivaliteit in het hart van China

Samenvatting

This article examines the Dutch East India Company (VOC) embassy to the Qing court in Beijing (1655–1657) as a case study of early modern intercultural diplomacy. Drawing primarily on the travel account of Joan Nieuhof, it analyses diplomatic negotiations, the interaction of competing political networks, and the role of intermediaries such as interpreters. The embassy reveals how the VOC, a hybrid entity combining commercial and sovereign functions, was compelled to operate within the constraints of the Chinese tributary system. At the same time, it highlights how European frictions between the Dutch, the Portuguese and Jesuit actors shaped diplomatic outcomes far beyond Europe. By foregrounding non-elite actors and cross-cultural communication, this article argues that the mission to Beijing offers a microcosm of global diplomatic entanglements in the early modern world.